Role of India in Nepal development

Previously,I used to think that India was using our country for its own benefit.The things that made me think so was its direct interference in our political system.When ever our government took decision,it was actually the decision given from India side.The death of Girija Prasad Koirala,Leader of Nepali Congress,made me so happy because I thought that now our country would be free from the hand of India.My tour to Dharan made my thinking more firm by looking Indian officials in our country controlling the whole area near Koshi barrage.I used to think that India is a plague that is hindering ours country development.

BUT I WAS WRONGGGGGGGGGGGGGG...It was not India that hinder our country's development.But rather it were the Nepalese political leaders that have made so.Our country is 200 years backward than any other developed country.But still,these political leaders are taking our country to darkness.The main reason for this is that the people in our country are not concern for their motherland.They have no feeling of saving and developing their country.Whenever any problem comes in our country,they think that the government must solve this rather than thinking that it is their responsibility to solve the problem.Until and unless this concept remains in the mind of Nepalese people,our country can never come in light of development.

People usually tell that a child born in Nepal is anti Indian.But they are wrong.A child born in Nepal is anti Nepali rather than anti Indian.The reason is that from the beginning of their life they are taught the Indians are plague to our country.So,the same concept develops in them.And finally they will be habitual to this system and phenomenon.So,our county can never progress.The fact is that India and china are our neighboring country.Whatever disturbances come in these two countries ,it will automatically be shifted towards our country.So,the best way is to take advantage from these two country's.China's economy is increasing by two digit number and ours economy is increasing in order of decimal.We have to learn a lesson from the citizen of our neighboring country's regarding countrymen ship.The people over there are so devoted that they think what they can give to the country rather than thinking what country can give to them.

So,Nepalese people must not blame political leaders for the present of Nepal.They must rather curse themselves.When the government is doing something wrong,people have right to go against it.But people in our country does nothing except shouting that this is Nepal and nothing will happen in this country.Their is famous saying that "don't tell anything unless you have ability to do that things".So,don't blame others but rather try to give your effort to develop our country.Our country can be developed within decade if all the people are devoted to it.Thus,finally I would tell that India is not problem to our country but a real helper.For example:Asian and European don't have oil factories.But Americans and Arabian have plenty.So,if we need oil supply than we have to buy from foreign market.So,oil would be very expensive if our country buy directly from international market.It would cost around 300 per liter.But due to help of India we are getting oils in very cheap price.So,Nepalese people stop shouting and blaming others;try developing feeling of motherhood in yourself.Try to pay debt to your country by contributing in its development.

Life after High School:experiences

The initial step child has to do when he step in this world is make himself fit.For this he is send to school or else the second home.Primarily,mother's lap is first school for the child.But that not enough to face the brutality of this world.So,he moves to school for imparting many information about this world.The main purpose of education is to make a child fit.After school comes college or high school.When a person passes high school,he think himself superior.He feels like he is at top of the world.But slowly he realizes that its simply a basic foundation.The real life is yet to come.

The same thing happened to me.When a passed my junior school,I was one of the best student.I passed with distinction.Similarly,I advanced myself to college level.At that moment also I was able to win the battle.I secured good marks and was ranked among best students.After my high school,I thought that life would be easy.But i was wrong.The day i joined entrance courses,I found myself ruined in the chains of multiple choice question.In my country,if you want to learn medical,then you have to appear for entrance examination.So,i decided to give a try.When i appeared for the first time in entrance examination,I found myself dull.Holding pencil in my hand, i went blank.So,when result came I did not found my name in the list of toppers.I could hardly secure 66 and selection begun from 83.So,i simply accepted my defeat and prepared for my next examination.

This time i was more confident and was quite sure to succeed.But my expectation went into vain.This time also I could not pass and see my name in the list.I was desperate and could not tolerate my defeat.Though i was categorized among best students in my life but later on i found out my condition.So,entrance examination ruined my one and half year of time.Everyone had great hope and expectation from me.But I could do nothing expect watch other glories.My friends,they all joined different institutions but i alone was left in darkness.But I did not lose my hope.
So,I continued my battle.Finally I found out the bitter truth of entrance examination.Their is policy of name enrollment in medical entrance examination by giving bribe.By hearing this I was shocked.I did not expect this but when i saw with my eyes the person who got enrolled by this policy then I could do nothing.That night I thought and thought.Finally I decided to go abroad for my further studies.

Now,right at this moment I have taken a great decision.I decided to join Chinese medical university.In my country,Chinese doctors are consider as useless.But, i have decided to change the concept of my fellow countrymen.I want to show to this world that Chinese doctors are the best.So,I have to put all efforts and study hard.If i succeed in my mission i will surely share my experiences with you all readers.After reading this please keep some comments so that i can reply u when i again write my experiences.Till the good bye...

Role of drugs in increment of crime

Taking drugs has become a fashion in this 21st century.More than 90% of Youths are under severe affect of drugs.Drug has become part of life for the youths.Most youth can't survive without drugs.Drugs has become their integral and most important part in their life.Drug has played a major role in increasing crime.

Drugs are very expensive to buy.It require lots and lots of money for drug addicts to buy drugs and fulfill their desire.So,for financial support,the drug addicts try to choose shortcut way.They create a certain environment of drug users and create a plan.All the negative thoughts combine and they come up with a brilliant plan.Finally,they attack departments store,gas stations,rob bank and people walking in their street.The crime rate has increased so rapidly within this decade which proves that the drug user is also increasing in the same ratio.

The drug user are killing honest,hardworking people just for the sake of few dollars.Life has become very cheap for those drug user.Thats why drug user has been neglected by the society.Kidnapping has become so frequent nowadays.within fraction of seconds,a child is kidnapped.The drug users kidnap the child of rich parents and ask ransom handsomely.IF their demand is not fulfilled then they kill the child and sell their organs for money.The drug users are acting like inhuman in this world.If this problem is not sorted out then a big threat will arise very soon.

Most youth don't involve in this sort of activities daily.Its the smugglers who influence them.The smuggler keep records of those youth who are in mental depression.Then they provide them with free drugs for the first time.When they know that the youth to whom they supplied drugs can't live without taking drugs then they simply stop giving them drugs.Now to fulfill the need,the youth approach violence way.This trend is increasing very rapidly.Nowadays,drug dealers are selling drugs very easily.The youth are easily attracted by these drug dealers.They organize certain dance party and distribute the drugs for free or take something from them.

If the government does not strike to this offense,then very soon all the youth of the nation will be involved in drug abuse and the development of country will stop as the youths are the pillar of development.so,the government must make strict policy to stop these drug dealers.These drug dealers who supply drugs must be punished very severely.Punishment must be given in such a way that the drug distributer or seller of entire world will think before they commit such act.In my opinion,the drug dealer must be tied with ropes in the open place where all people can see.Then their body must be rubbed with honey and flies must be spread in their bodies.Although this punishment look simple,but its quite a tough challenge.Staying for few seconds with fly in our body is difficult.Then,those criminals have to stay for hours.This will give them mental torture.They will think before doing such act.So,in my opinion this would be the best technique of all.Death is not the solution.Think in such a way that the punishment is also given and the problem is also solved.

LASTLY,CAMPAIGN MUST BE LAUNCHED SAYING NO TO DRUGS.

Future is predetermined or not?

There are many people interested in knowing about their future.Almost each and every one of us is very keen to know what will happen in next moment of our life.There are many questions roaming around in our mind like "Whether we are going to be a successful person or not?"Similarly,when we going to die might be another question striking in our mind.Likewise,who is going to be our life partner is also an another interesting thought people wish to know.But is it possible to know these all things before hand?There are many astrologers who predict the future.Some of the famous astrologers are like Astrodomas,H.G. Well etc who predicted many things of the future.But is it coincidence or really future can be seen is matter of discussion.

According to Hindu Mythology,future is determined right from the beginning when the child is just born in this earth.Similarly,there are some people who thinks that future is determined by the deeds we do.If people work hard then they are able to flourish their future or else they will be of no importance.Despite knowing this,people are still much concerned to know their future before hand.They visit many fortune tellers and try to know about their future.But most of the fortune tellers nowadays are simply fake.They are fox wearing tiger skin on them.Telling future has been a big business in this modern world.There are many people who spend thousand of dollars trying to know about their future.They even sell their property and donate in thrust to know about their future.

Future can not been known at all.There is no person living in this world who can exactly predict the future.Scientists are very keen about this topic.There was reference of time machine in the past.The building of time machine would enable human civilization to know their future before hand.But knowing about time machines negative affect,scientists are not ready to invent such type of device.Inventing these sorts things would violate the nature's rule.People must not involve themselves in such activities of knowing their future.Whatever people do in the present will determine their future.So,its futile to know about future.Future is already determined by the work we do.A hardworking person is successful in his or her life but a sluggish person never becomes successful.

There are many incidences in day to day life reflecting that future is predetermined.There was a poor man who was skilled in sweeping and cleaning sorts of things.So,he went to a big company for job of cleaning .He was selected but the managing director of that company asked him for his email Id.Since he was very poor he did not have one.So,he was rejected.The poor man became so sad and sat outside the company.Suddenly he saw a man with a bag full of tomatoes.He had 2 dollars with him.He asked the man to give him some tomatoes for 2 dollars.The poor man stayed there for an hour.While he was staying there a women came and asked him for those tomatoes.She asked the poor man to give her those tomatoes for 4 dollars.An idea suddenly came in the mind of that poor man.He sold those handful of tomatoes to that women.Then again he went to the market and bought tomatoes for 4 dollars.He sold them to another women for 8 dollars.Likewise,he doubled his income in every sale.After 1 month he had money enough to buy 100 kilos of tomatoes.He sold those all tomatoes and was able to buy a market in 6 month time.As time passed his income increased and he established many markets.Today he owns his empire of his own.In interview he was asked how he became successful in his life?He told his story.Again the interviewer asked whether he had email Id.The man replied "NO".The reporter was surprised.The reporters said if you had email Id then what you would do?The man replied :I would be sweeping .

From the above passage also it can be inferred that future is predetermined.What you are going to be in life is already divined by the supernatural power.So,it is futile to worry about the future.Forget the past,think of present and your future will automatically be secured.The great personalities like Albert Einstein,Sir Issac Newton were never concerned about the future.Thus they were able to lead the civilization.Like wise, Napoleon Bonaparte ,who was from a poor family, had never dreamed to become Emperor of France but since his future was determined, he became the King of France.This all shows that future is always predetermined.

Mothers Role in Harvesting Good Child

Before a child is born,he stays for nine months in mother womb and gets ready for the outside world.But when he is born,he is in simple state with no information.He is empty minded.He is like a raw meat in initial stage.Then his mother makes him a boil meat and make himself ready for the school.At school the boiled meat is made spicy with the help of teacher.Finally,mothers make the spicy meat ready to be served to the world.So,a mother has a great role in harvesting her child.

The first school of a child is mothers lap.He stays there and learns many thing useful to him to go for further development.As a result,mothers play the first role of educating her child.So,along with a mother,she is a teacher as well.Thus,mother must be educated to ensure the education of entire family.There is a popular saying that"if a man is educated then he himself is educated but if a women or mother is educated then the entire nation,community and family members are educated.Similarly,when a child enters into a school,he learns many interesting thing.He slowly and gradually develops himself for the upcoming time.At school there are teachers to guide him.But when the same child returns home,there must be a suitable environment for the child to study.

Environment plays a crucial role in determining future of a child.If the family environment is good then the child develops characteristics on basis of that.Harmful or unsuitable environment affects the mind of child and destroys his future.The role of making good environment also goes to a mother.As father are mainly involved in office,mothers have to look the entire house.So,mothers are not only house wives but they are Home Minister as well.A child becomes a good citizen when his background is good.There must be presence of all facilities for a child to be highly skilled manpower country.

Lastly,mothers has a great role in doing every work.Not only they give birth to child,they have role in determining their career as well.A child usually says that he want to become a doctor,engineer etc. which is actually dream of his mother.So,by looking at the child the background of family can be predicted.It is often inferred that if a child is well dressed and mannered than he belongs to good family or else from a disreputed family.So,a child has an essence role in reflecting their family characters.

Politics affecting Development

The country's affair is discussed by group of people.These group of people represent following political groups and all the plans,discussions made by these political groups fall under one topic known as Politics.The overall country matter is handled through politics.Politics can be considered as God of a country.Political scenario of a country predicts its development.So,politic has a major influence in country's progress.

There are many sectors in politics.Some political leaders take in charge of economical development whereas others take responsibility of defense;some take charge of Communication within the country whereas some take concern about Education.These all sectors as a whole is discussed under Politics.The effect of politics in everyday life is very severe.Any sort of changes in system of a country can be felt by altering the existing form of government.These government are changed and new government is formed through politics.Politics can be considered as pillar of development.The entire foundation of country's development lies in the hand of political group through politics.

Politics is considered to be a dirty game by the ordinary people.But actually politics is not a dirty game;it is rotten people who plays negatively in politics.About more than 50percent of politically affiliated people are corrupt.Thus,only a few countries are highly developed as the percentage of corrupt ministers in those country is less.It is really difficult to find ministers who are solely involved the welfare of people and country.When a common people enter politics,they think that they will stop corruption.But the bitter truth is that they themselves will be involved in corruption.So,it has been very difficult to stop corruption.There are many anti corruption agencies running in the world.Yet corruption takes place because the people representing those anti corruption agencies are also corrupt.

Any disturbances in politics hinders the progress.The coalition between Thai people and their existing government is the best example to site this.Thailand is facing several crisis due to recent fight between the people and the government.Experts has already said that after the fight is over there will be serious problem in Thailand.Similarly,political instability in Nepal has driven Nepal towards dark age.Its development has been retarded.Due to desire of few politician the entire nation has to face the trouble.If these problem continues than there will not be progress.Additionally,this is also economic crisis period.If all the countries of the world don't act in a well organized way then it is for sure that our upcoming generation will have to survive in stone age again.

Nonetheless,its never too late.Different policies must be made world wide.Powerful countries must not interfere in any internal matter of any countries.Thinking of money is not a good characteristics of a politician.A politician should live a simple life and flourish the lives of other people.He should not be money minded.The whole nation will be benefited if a good leader is leading the country.Thus politics has a great influence in the development of country.

Is formal examination a real test for a student???

The test taken to judge a student after a semester or yearly based system is known as examination.Usually,examination are conducted to promote a student from one level to another level.But to judge a student on basis of examination within 2 to 3 hours is totally unfair.So,in my opinion formal examination is not a real test for a student.

When a child is born in this world,his mind is empty.He steps in this world with bare foot and just a brain to make himself suitable for the up coming days.He slowly learn few words from his parents and then goes to his second parents or school for learning more things.He grabs many things from the school premises but whatever he learns he can not produce that information in single three hours test.So,when he fails in this examination he is severely castigated by his teachers and also parents.The child is totally demoralized and he no longer is able to learn more things.So,formal examination is not good to judge a student.

Likewise,in an examination,some student consider luck as an important criteria.The marks a student obtains in an exam is due to his effort of writing in exam but along with his efforts comes teachers mood.If teacher is in fresh mood he corrects the paper with flexibility but if the teacher is in not good mood then the student has to bear a crisis of marks.Similarly,in developed countries exam system is slowly demolishing and new system is been applied for testing students ability.The teacher checks the student through out the semester and gives grade on basis of that.So,this is the best thing for a student to be tested.

However,some of the people might thing that students should be judged by formal education as it is the culture we have been from generation to generation.But to those people there is only one thing to say that why don't they live in stone age as that was the culture of our ancestors.Why they are living in this modern world?So,it is obvious that with passage of time the system must be changed.Previously,formal examination was the basis of student judgment but now it must be modified so that student life is fully benefited.

So,finally i would like to consider the fact that final examination should not be the real test for a student.Rather than that teacher must look student performance through out the semester and judge him.This would be the best thing for every student studying now.There would be no frustration for student and suicides rate will also decrease.Like wise,students creative power as well as his imagination would flourish and student might give his full effort to gift this present world.Thus,real exam for a student is there performance through out the year.One day exam can not judge student potential.

Is world about to end at 2012?

Predicting the future is like asking whether there is existence of supernatural power or not?A future can never be decided before hand.But there are lots of discussions going on in end of world:December 21,2012.Now and there,constantly news channels are broadcasting the possible ways of end of whole civilization.Is this true or an apocryphal?There might be lot of question coming in the mind of people.In fact the whole world is very eager to know about these answers.Scientists are trying to know the answers too.The main attraction point focusing on the end of the world is Mayan Calender.

Mayan civilization was the most advanced and developed human civilization known for its spectacular art,monumental architecture and sophisticated mathematical and astronomical systems.Mayans were also famous for their use of pyramid in public bloodletting ritual.The most fascinating thing that has been attracting all the people is its calender that ends in December 21st 2012.Mayan civilization calenders shows a cycle of 5185 years.While counting these years,2012 is the last date.Thus,many people has analyzed it and made several interpretation.Some says that the north pole and south pole will shift creating physical disturbances;some even says that the earth will be hit by asteroids and everything will just collapse;others often say that there will be natural calamities creating a huge disturbances.But the scientists have not found these all interpretation to be true.There is clash between the scientists also.Some scientists believe in this doom day while some do not.Thus,there are two groups of scientists.

In my opinion,Mayan calendar prediction won't be true.Its just hypothetical.Several times such prediction has been made but none has been true.Thus,its just being a pessimistic thinking about end of the world.However,destruction may occur due to man overuse of natural resources.Data show that if the natural resources are exploited in the same way then the whole resources will be finished within coming decade.Similarly,NASA officials says that within a decade the temperature of earth will increase by 10 degree centigrade causing the glacier to melt.They are several indication shown by the nature about human civilization to come to end.One recent example is the Volcano eruption at Iceland.The volcano has been erupting continuously and has been a thing to worry for the whole world.The smoke that came out through volcano eruption canceled all the flights in Europe.Similarly,the another example of destruction indicated by the nature is Earthquake in Haiti,Chile etc.So,if this way the natural resources are exploited then the world will surely come to an end.Like Mahatma Gandhi has said that "Earth has plenty of resources to fulfill mans need but nots man greed.

Thus,end of the world is simply apocryphal.Its better to think of present rather than future.So,it would be best for all the people to start using the principle of 3R i.e Reuse,Recycle and reduction.If this principle is kept in mind then the problem will often be reduced.

Sports ruling the world

Amazing, fantastic, superb, mind blowing...many words but only one thing to describe:Sports.Sports have become an internationally dominating field in which every country is actively participating.Sports can not be defined in a sentence.It is as broad as Universe,as dense as Black Hole and also as dangerous as any natural calamities.Sports are involved in everybody day to day life.So,no one can ignore about sports.

Sports have got many cons.It has led many people to great height.Not only people but the countries as well are benefited by sports.Many personalities like Pele,Mara dona through football,Mike Tyson through boxing ,Roger Federer through tennis ,Tiger woods through golf ,Sachin tendulkar through cricket and many more have become well known all over the world through sports.Sports have reached pinnacle in this present world.Sports have helped various countries to thrive their economy.Pele through football was able to bring his country economy back when Brazil won the world cup foot ball.Similarly,by organizing various sports events,various countries get opportunity to earn money.
Sports also publicize the beauty of the country through media.When sports are organized in a country,many people are attracted towards it.Data have shown that about billion of people are attracted by sports.Recently world cup football is going to be held in Africa.People from all over the world has already booked tickets for the football matches that are going to take place.This show how much people are interested towards sports.Actually,sports has become passion for various people.When people visit those countries where sports were organized,they not only get chance to enjoy sports but also get equal benefit to observe the wonderful places of those country.Sports play a vital role in publicizing the awesome beauty of world.

With advantages come disadvantages as well.Everyone can not get chance to be famous through sports.Only few get that golden opportunity to write their names.And the rest of them goes in vain.In India about million of people dedicate their life in cricket but among them hundreds are only selected and within hundred 20 are able to leave their impression.The rest are erased from the field of sports.Similarly,corruption has severely affected the field of sports.Many news are heard about adulteration in glamorous field of sports.Whatever is seen from outside,its simply an image but nothing more than that.The reality is even more bitter when observed carefully.The famous person whom we see happy outside are actually annoyed from inside.Their privacy is severely disturbed.If a well known person like Mike Tyson smokes in public than its going to be Headline in paper tomorrow.So,its very difficult for celebrity to keep their good image in this world.Similarly,sports creates violence in people.Like for example whenever there is a cricket match between Pakistan and India then people are so excited.They become very angry if their country lose the match.The players representing their respective counties are seriously castigated.Those players who can not handle the pressure even commit suicide.Sports have also encouraged drug addiction.Some players take drugs to keep themselves fit.

Despite all of these outcomes,sports must be played in a natural way.No serious offense must be taken with players playing these things.Sports give two nation a chance to become friends.It develops good relationship between two countries.People get a chance to know each other.Prosperity and peace can be achieved.So,its upon human hand to decide.If sports are played with only source of entertainment than it is flourished through out the world or else it may result in next world war.

Is it possible to built a time machine?

Time machine is a device that allows a person or anything to travel within the frame of time.The term time machine was introduced by novelist H.G.Well in his novel in 1865.H.G Well had predicted many things before time which infact became the reality of the world.He had predicted the World War II where he stated there would be big explosion.People would fly like birds and there would be destruction all around.His imagination infact became the truth.Whatever he predicted became the fact of that time.Germany attacked the world with its brutal plane.Similarly,USA dropped atom bomb on two states of Japan.H.G well has also forecasted about time travel.So,question now arises ,is it possible for man to built an time machine????

There were rumors in 19th century about the discovery of time machine by Albert Einstein.But it only became a rumor and nothing else.However,some scientists tell that Einstein had discovered the formula of making a time machine but looking at misuse of his creation of E=MC2,he destroyed the formula by burning it.Still now the equation exists in the middle and is yet to be solved.Recently,Scientists Stephen Hawking has shown some interest in time machine.For him travelling in time means traveling in the fourth dimension.We already know about the three dimensions,so it is not very difficult to find fourth dimension as it sounds hard.Science fiction time travel movie shows a large energy hungry machine.These machine
creates a path through the fourth dimension,a tunnel through time.Hawking further adds that physicists have been thinking about this tunnels in time too.They have even coined these tunnels as worm hole.Actually worm holes are time tunnel predicted by Einstein theory of relativity that connects two places.Actually ,there are many small worm holes around but its difficult to use those worm hole.

If the worm holes are inflated or made big enough for object or person to fit then time travel would be possible.But the problem is that if anyone tries to make the worm hole big then it absorbs radiation and destroy itself.Thus,time travel is impossible.Its difficult to control the time but not impossible.Time is like a river flowing a different direction with different speed.So,time may be slow or may be fast and this concept was put forward by Einstein 100 of years ago.Infact his concept came to be true.In space time runs fast whereas in earth it runs slow.This is all because of huge mass of earth.Matter drags the time and make it slower.The greater the mass ,slower becomes the time.This leads to probability of travelling to the future.At the centre of our milky way galaxy lies an enormous black hole through which even light could not travel through its own gravity.But as its mass is so huge then time would slow down.For example if a spacecraft is built to travel around the black hole like satellite travelling around the earth orbits then time could be controlled.For a person staying five years in the space craft,he would find the time in earth to be 10 years forward.So,if the person lives for 5 years dating 2010 then he would find time period in earth to be 2020.But this theory is quite dangerous and almost impossible.

The best way to travel through time is to travel faster than the speed of light.But this is also infact impossible.The fastest ever made spacecraft was Apollo 10 travelling at the speed of 25000 mph.But to travel in future the speed must be 20 times greater than the speed of Apollo 10.Thus,this also makes time travel impossible.But oneday,it might be possible to travel faster than time as the recent discovery of Hadron Collider has proved it.The main problems arises when time travel is discussed because it disturbs the natural phenomenon.If a time machine is built then that person would have chance to go to the past and change his future.He would have entire power in his hand.Thus the whole Universe would be in chaos.Thus,most of the scientists are not showing their interest in building time machine.Finally,it can be concluded that scientists have got potential to built a time machine but they will not make it so that nature rules are abided by each and every living organisms.

Learning starts with a failure and first failure is step to education

Thomas Addison said ,"I will not tell that I have failed hundred times but I will tell I have found hundred ways of failure."So,by this statement we can analyze that failure is not humiliation but rather an opportunity for us to know different things.Thus,it would be wise to tell that learning starts with a failure and first failure is step to education.

Man is creation of nature.When he is born in this world,he comes with nothing.But gradually,he makes himself suitable for the hazards and beauty of this world.But first thing he does as a child is learn.But as a child he does not learn every thing in first step.He makes many mistake and finally get chance to learn that thing.In other words,he develops perfection with himself to understand that thing.From this also it can be inferred that learning starts with a mistake or rather with a failure.But failure does not mean to lose.Some time losing is greater than winning.To win is nothing but to rise in every failing is a great achievement.

Similarly,there are many great personality whose career started with a failure.Like Albert Einstein,known for his theory of relativity,made lots of effort to develop such wonderful creation.He did not succeed at once but tried thousands of time and finally got success.Same is with Thomas Elva Addison.He got failure thousand times but succeeded in thousand and a one time.For him failing was not losing but a way to learning.Similarly,Salman Waksman performed 1000 of experiments on bacteria and finally developed antibiotics Streptomycin.So,to learn something failing is a must.The more we fail,the more we get chance to learn.

However,there are some people who might tell that failing is not important to learn.One can learn without failing.For them there is popular saying of Albert Einstein:if anyone tells that he has not committed any mistake in life then it means he has not tried any thing new.Thus to those people this statement is a good example.So,being a human being,failing is part of our life.No one is perfect in this world.Even in Hindu Mythology,God has created several mistakes.So,it is futile to think that failing is losing.

Finally,failure is actually a key to success.A person who has failed several times has true value for success but for a person who has achieved success in first time has got less value for the same thing.Thus,learning start with a failure and first step to education.

Each fresh crisis we encounter is an opportunity in disguise

Opportunity in face of crisis is an intricate thing to think.But with every crisis comes a chance to gain something.Scarcity or shortage of various things in day to day life is known crisis whereas the chances that we get in our life is opportunity.So,chances that we are going to get from crisis is the our discussion.There are many ways to show that crisis provides opportunity to get various things.Some examples can be taken from William Shakespeare play :Romeo and Juliet whereas some can be taken from our day to day life.So,I am convinced with the statement that each fresh crisis we encounter is opportunity in disguise.

Many people have already seen or heard about the Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet.But,the meaning of this play has be known by few.This play cites the best example of opportunity in face of crisis.Play shows meeting of Romeo and Juliet in ball proceeding with love and their marriage which is best part of play ;and its harmful upshot that resulted their death.The two feud family suffered alot from the death of their children but they got an opportunity to end the long lasting war between their family.This shows a chance in face of crisis.The death of Romeo and Juliet was crisis to their parents but the end of war between those two parents was a chance for them to maintain their relationship again.

Similarly,their are many evidences that can be taken from our day to day life.When a student who is intelligent in maths is taken to history class then he becomes quite dissatisfied by the decision but he gets an opportunity to widen his mind.Thus he gets an opportunity in face of crisis.Likewise,when there is any sort of natural disaster in the country then people get opportunity to help other people.Thus this can also be inferred as opportunity in face of crisis.So,there are many ways which can be shown that opportunity can be gained in face of shortage.

However,some people might think that crisis can not create opportunity because it only creates problem.But the fact is that it is we who have to decide on what opportunity we can get from these crisis.Thus,it lies fully on ability of people to determine.The old saying goes in this way that wait for the opportunity and grab whenever you get it but the new version states that create opportunity and use it in your own way.So,people can determine their own faith in sort of crisis.People should not be reluctant in utilizing their chance.

Finally,crisis is a path of creating opportunity.If we uses that path in positive way then it is boon for us or else if we fluctuate from simple crisis then the same crisis becomes a curse.Thus,it depends upon the thinking of people and way they create it.Thus,i agree with the statement each fresh crisis we encounter is an opportunity in disguise.

People succeed by emphasizing on differences

William Shakespeare said that to get success in life we should learn more than others,know more than others and expect less than other.If these things are kept in mind then we get success in life.This is due to the fact that a unique thing is created by doing the mentioned thing.These unique things leads to success in life.Thus,I am fully convinced with the statement that people succeed by emphasizing on differences between other.

Human beings are the creation of world.They all are different in their physical state.So,its obvious for them to be different in their mental aspects as well.Taste of people are different.These different taste leads to creation of unique things.We can see many things around.If all people have same thinking then we would find uniformity.But the fact is that there is diversity in our world.Thus,it can be inferred from this statement that people try to create new things.It takes time for unique things to get acceptance in this world.But when these results are accepted,then the person who has created it becomes famous.In other words success comes in their hand.

There are many great personalities who we remember till now.Scientists like Sir Issac Newton created Law of Gravitation through his own imagination which is applied in everybody day to day life.Similarly,Albert Einstein relation between energy and mass is widely been used.There are many and many more who became famous through their unique creation.Although they are no more among us but their unique creation made them immortal.From this it shows that to succeed people must emphasize on differences.We can also judge by looking around us.There are many different industries.If people had thought of same thing then we would still be living in stone age.But their difference of thinking made us live in this 21st century.

However,there are some people who might think that it is futile to emphasize on differences to succeed.Simply,by copying the concept we can get success.But the fact is imitation can survive only for few days but unique things lives forever and ever.Unique creation are always immortal.The things which have been created by new concept are widely been used till now.So,copying is not the solution to succeed in life.Therefore,every people can not be considered as great personalities.So,in every century there is only one person who is regarded as leader of all mankind who has got guts to make difference in the life of all people.

Finally,it is useless to run after success.When people emphasizes on differences then automatically success come in their feet.So,think unique to get success rather than waste time to imitate.Unique things are always praised and are often considered as path to get immortality.Thus,I am convinced with the statement people emphasize on differences to get success.

Set free to accomplish goal

Creativity is key to succeed in any mission.It enables a person to think in a dynamic way and finally accomplish his or her goal.A person becomes creative when he or she is allowed to work freely in a peaceful way with no hindrance or obstacles at all.SO,I am fully convinced with the statement that says "People accomplish more when they are allowed to do things in their own way."
A child is born free when he comes to this world.Initially,the mind of child is in inert stage but slowly he gains proper knowledge from the world.The child grows into adult with the passage of time and finally gains more information.His creative power increases.If he is allowed to do things in his own way then he can become a perfect individual of tomorrow.A child has many goals and aims in his life.He wants to do something very unique.He sets his goal in very high limit and put great efforts to achieve it.If the environment allows him to work freely then he can achieve those goal quite easily.But as the world is full of disturbances and hindrance ,so it becomes difficult for child to succeed in his task.
There are few people who have achieved their goal and become known through out this world.They became model to this world as they were able to make such discoveries that helped in the improvement and betterment of society.Moreover their creation was unique and extraordinary.They were able to achieve these things as they were allowed to do works in their own way.Like,Sir Issac Newton formulated Gravitational Law when he saw an apple fall from the tree.Similarly,Galileo discovered telescope when he wished to see heavenly object.Likewise,Sir Albert Einstein established relation between mass and energy which has been beneficial to human kind till now.There are many examples which has reflected the necessity of leaving a person to their free state to achieve goal.They have become successful in getting their target when they were liberated.
However,some of the people might think that people can achieve goal more perfectly when they are bound with a certain perimeter so that they don't have to worry of the worlds problem.But in my opinion,those captured people can only limit their mind within that boundary.They are unable to free their self and their creativity gets down which hinder their development to accomplish their goal.The more we try to limit ourselves the more violent we become.Limiting ourselves within small boundary is the main cause of violation.The more we think the more we are able to win over this world and shower this world with full of presents like our few ancestors did.
Finally,a free mind is a successful mind.To accomplish target it is necessary for the person to feel himself free.Then only it is possible to gain their desire.Restriction is not the key for development.As human beings did not restrict themselves to few invention;thus we are now able to surf the whole universe within fraction of seconds.Therefore,people accomplish more when they are allowed to do things in their own way.

Sex linked Inheritance,Linkage with gene and chromosome

LINKAGE :
The persistent association of genes located in same chromosome which are inherited together in same position from one generation to another is called Linkage.Gene present in the same chromosome is called linked gene.
The main significance of linkage is that it reduces the possibility of variation in gametes unless crossing over takes place.
CHROMOSOME THEORY OF LINKAGE:
Morgan and castle formulated the Chromosome theory of Linkage according to which he listed the following points:
1)Gene which show phenomenon of linkage are located in same gene.
2)They are arranged in linear fashion in the chromosome.
3)The strength of linkage depends upon the distance between the linked genes in the chromosomes.The closely located genes show strong linkage while the widely located genes show weak linkage.
4)The number of genes per individual is far more than the number of chromosome pair.Thus,each chromosome bears many gene.
5)Linked gene remain in their original combination during the course of inheritance.
TYPES OF LINKAGE:
1)COMPLETE LINKAGE:
The linkage in which character are inherited together in their original combination for two or more generation in continuous and regular fashion is called complete linkage.There is always parental combination's and no any recombination.Margon reported complete Linkage in Drosophila.
Morgan crossed a wild Drosophila having grey body and normal wings(BBVV)with a black body and vestigial wing(bbvv).All the hybrids in F1 generatio have grey body and normal wings(BbVv).when F1 male hybrids are crossed with a double recessive female having black body and vestigeal wing(bbvv),in F2 generatio the offspring of 2 types in equal proportions are produced.These offspring's resembled their grandparents.
Parents Grey,Normal * Black,Vestigeal
BBVV bbvv
Gametes BV * bv
F1 generation BbVv

Test cross F1 male grey,normal * female black,vestigeal
BbVv bbvv
gametes Bv bv * bv

Test cross Grey ,normal * Black,Vestigeal
ratio BbVv bbvv
50% 50%
The result indicates that the grey body character is inherited along with normal wings.Its Suggest that the genes are linked together.

2)INCOMPLETE LINKAGE:
Incomplete linkage is defined as the separation of linked gene due to crossing over.In this type of linkage,genes are widely located in the chromosome. Incomplete linkage was demonstrated by Hutchinson in maize plant.He crossed a maize plant having coloured and full seeds(CCSS)with Colourless and shrunken seeds(ccss).The F1 hybrids appeared with coloured and full seed(CcSs).When the F1 hybrids are crossed with double recessive parents
(ccss),they showed four types of progeny in the following ratio:

Parents Coloured,Full * Colourless,Shrunken
CCSS ccss
Gametes CS * cs
F1 hybrids CcSs

Test cross F1 coloured,full * Colourless,Shrunken
CcSs ccss
Gametes CS Cs cS cs * cs
Progeny Coloured full coloured shrunken colourless full colourless shrunken
CCSS CcSs ccSs ccss
48% 2% 2% 2%

SEX LINKED INHERITANCE:
There are two types of chromosomes in living organism.They are:
1)Autosomes:
Chromosomes bearing genes for somatic organs are autosomes.There are 22 pairs of autosomes in human beings.genes linked with the autosome shows autosomal Linkage.
2)Sex chromosome/Allosome:
Chromosome that determine the sex of the species is called sex chromosome.Human has one pair of sex chromosome.Sex chromosome in female is X and in male is Y.Gene linked with sex chromosome show sex linkage.In most of the animal including human beings,female have two alike rod shaped chromosome"XX" while male has one rod shaped chromosome"X" and another hooked shaped chromosome"Y".
Genes located in X chromosome is sex linked gene and the pattern of inheritance of such gene is called sex linked inheritance.These genes are inherited along with X chromosome.In most of the animals,Y chromosome is genetically inert.it may or may not contain genes.Genes present in Y chromosome are called holandric genes.

CRISS CROSS INHERITANCE:
The inheritance in which parents transmits their sex linked traits to their grandchildren of same sex through their offspring of opposite sex is called criss cross inheritance.For eg:Father transmits their sex linked traits to their grandson through daughters.

SEX LINKED INHERITANCE IN DROSOPHILA:
Sex linked genes were reported for the first time by American Zoologist T.H morgan while studying colour in Drosophilla melanogaster.Morgan,while working in Drosophilla found a male fly with white eye colour in the culture of red eye Drosophilla.The normal eye colour of Drosophilla is red.Actually the gene for white eye arose as a mutation of gene for red eye.Morgan and his associates,from numbers of crosses found that the inheritancce of eye colour in Drosophila was associated with sex chromosome of the parents.Drosophila has a pair of sex chromosome.Female has alike rod shaped chromosome XX whle male has One rod shaped chromosome X and another hook shaped chromosome Y.
Morgan crossed a red eyed female and white eyed male.The F1 hybrid were red eyed out of which half were male and half were female.When the red eyed male and red eyed female of F1 generation were intercrossed then all the F2 females were red eyed and out of two F2 males half were red eyed and half white eyed.

Parents Red eyed female (RR) * White eyed male(WW)
Gametes XR XR XW Y

F1 hybrids XRXW XRXW * XRY XRY

Red eyed female Red eyed male

F1 hybirds Red eyed male(XRY) Red eyed female(XRXW)
Gametes XR Y * XR xW
f2 Hybrids XRXR XRXW XRY xwY
Red eyed female Red eye male white eyed male

Thus,this shows that the white eye character is transmitted from grandfather to grandson through daughter.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SEX LINKED INHERITANCE:
1)Criss cross inheritance:
It is type of sex linked inheritance in which parents passes their sex linked traits to their grand child of same sex through offspring but of opposite sex.
2)Sex linked traits are recessive.
3)Males suffer more from sex linked disorders.
4)Recessive gene can express in female only in homozygous state otherwise female are only carriers.
5)Traits governed by sex linked recessive gene:
a)Produce disorders in male.
b)Express when represented by single allelle because Y-chromosome don't carry any allele.
c)Seldom occurs in father or son.
d)Fail to appear in female unless their father also posses the same and mother is carrier.
6)Traits governed by sex linked dominant genes:
a)Produces more disorder in female.
b)All the femal offspring will exhibit if father produces the same.

SEX LINKED INHERITANCE IN HUMAN BEINGS:
1)COLOUR BLINDNESS:
It is a condition in which a person is unable to distinguish between red,green or both colours from other colours.It is also known as Red Green colour blindness.or Daltanism.THe gene for this red green colour blindness is present on X chromosome.
eg.
When a colour blind man(XcY) marries a normal woman(XX) then all their male and female children are normal but the female children are carrier.If carrier female marries a normal male than two normal visioned female,one normal visioned male and one colour blind male is produced.
Parents Colour blind man(XCY) * Normal woman(XX)
Gametes XC Y * X X
F1 hybids XCX XCX XY XY
carrier females normal male

Carrier females(XCX) Normal male(XY)
Gametes XC X * X Y
F2 hybrids XCX XCX XCY XY
Carrier female colour blind Normal male
male
2)HAEMOPHILIA(BLEEDERS DISEASE):
A disease in which suffering people donot have ability for blood clotting is called Haemophilia.As Queen Victoria of England was its carrier it is also known as Royal disease.The pattern of inheritance is criss cross.
If a normal woman marries a haemophilic man then both the F1 sons are normal whereas F1 daughters are normal but carrier.When carrier female marries normal male then the F2 daughters are normal whereas among two F2 sons,one son is normal and the other is Haemophilic.
Parents Normal woman(XX) Haemophilic man(XHY)
Gametes X X * XH Y
F1 hybrids XHX XHX XY XY
Carrier female normal male

Parents Carrier female (XHX) Normal male(XY)
Gametes XH X * X Y
F2 hybrids XHX XX XHY Xy
Carrier female Normal female Haemophilic maleNormal Male

Pollination:Self and Cross Pollination

POLLINATION:
Pollination is transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of same or another flower of same or different plant with or without the help of external agencies is known as pollination.The self pollinated flowers are generally small,inconspicuous,colourless,odourless and nectarless.

TYPES OF POLLINATION:
1)SELF POLLINATION(AUTO GAMY):
The transfer of pollen grains from anther of a flower to the stigma of same or genetically similar flower is called self pollination.

CONDITION FAVOURING SELF POLLINATION:
1)HOMOGAMY:
This is the condition where the anther and stigma of bisexual flowers mature at the same period.
2)CLEISTOGAMY:
Some bisexual flowers never open but remains closed which finally favour the self pollination.
Eg:ground nut
ADVANTAGES OF SELF POLLINATION:
1)It preserve the parental character.
2)It does not need any external agency.Hence shows greater re abilities.
3)It is necessary for species which are at great distant from each other.
4)It is advantageous to those plants which do not produce nectar and juices.
5)It is more economical as it does not consume energy for large population.
6)Pollen grains are not wasted.
7)Maintains the purity of races from one generation to another as no variation takes place.
DISADVANTAGES OF SELF POLLINATION:
1)The useful characters can not be introduced.
2)The undesirable characters do not eliminate.
3)The offspring are readily susceptible to disease.
4)It does not reveal any variability so they may fail in long run.
5)Continuous self pollination can lead to death of species.
6)No variation are produced as a result of no evolution taken place.
7)Weak progeny are produced.

TERMS USED: GEITONOGAMY:
Pollination between flowers of same plant is called geitonogamy.It may require external agency like insects,winds etc.

XENOGAMY:
Pollination between flowers of different plant is called xenogamy.

2)CROSS POLINATION(ALLOGAMY):
cross pollination is transfer of pollen grains from anther of one flower to stigma of genetically different flower.Cross polination is accompanied with external agencies like wind,water,animals etc.

EXTERNAL AGENCIES THAT BRING CROSS POLLINATION: 1)ANEMOPHILY:
Pollination which takes place by the help of wind is called anemophily.Wind picks up the pollen grains from the dehisced anther of a flower and drops them on the stigma of other flowers.
CHARACTERISTICS:
a)Anemophilous plants grow in large group.This ensures the pollination of flowers of all the plants.
b)In many herbaceous plants the flowers are produced above the fooliage.This ensures the exposure of flowers to the wind.
c)in deciduous anemophilous trees,flowers are produced before leaves(Peach,apple).
d)A high proportion of pollen grains are wasted in wind pollination.Therefore,plants produce large qunatities of the pollen.
e)Pollen grains are small,light or dusty and can be blown to large distances.
f)Pollen grains are light and inwettable.
g)In anemophilous flowers,the non essential floral organs are either absent or reduced.This make the flowers small,inconspicuous and devoid of colour,nectar or smell.

2)HYDROPHILY:
The pollination which takes place by means of water is known as hydrophily.It occurs only in aquatic plants.however,many aquatic plants with emerged flowers have other modes of pollination.
Eg:Lemma,Zostera,Vallisneria
TYPES OF HYDROPHILY:
a)HYPOHYDROPHILY:
It occurs below the surface of water.
Eg:Zostera,Ceratophylum,Hydrilla
b)EPIHYDROPHILY:
It occurs over the surface of water.
Eg:Vallisneria

3)ZOOPHILY:
The pollination which takes place by the means of animal is known as zoophily.It is of different types:
a)ENTOMOPHILY:
The pollination by means of insects is known as entomophily.
CHARACTERISTICS:
i)The flowers are large and bright in colour;and if small,they are grouped into inflorescence.Eg:Marigold
ii)They have scent and nectar.
iii)the pollen grains are large with sticky wall.
iv)Some flowers like violet,pansy and orchids have bright lines and spots on their petals which help the insects to the nectar.

b)ORNITHOPHILY:
Pollination that takes place with the help of birds is known as ornithophily.
Eg:Bombax,Begonia,Butea monosperma(flame of forest)
FEATURES:
i)The flowers produces large amount of nectar.
ii)The corolla is funnel shaped which enable the bird to sip the nectar.
iii)The petals are of bright colour like red so that they can be seen from large distances.
iv)the stigma are sticky.

c)CHIROPTEROPHILY:
The pollination that takes place with the accompany from bat is known as chiropterophily.
Eg:Anthocephalos cadamba
CHARACTERISTICS:
i)The flowers are of dull colour.
ii)The flower consists of large amount of nectars and juices then ornithophilous flowers.
iii)The flower produce large number of stamens.

d)MALACOPHILY:
The pollination that takes place by the support of snail is called malacophily.
Eg:Arisaema(Snake or cobra plant) and arum lilly

DEVICES TO ENSURE CROSS POLLINATION:
1)DECLINY OR UNISEXUALITY:
This is the condition where the plants are dioecious(unisexual)which unable them to cross pollinate.
2)DICHOGAMY:
This is the condition in bisexual flowers where the anthers and stigma mature at different time.Dichogamy is of two types:
a)PROTOGYNY:
stigma matures earlier than anther of same flower.Eg:Mirabilis
b)PROTANDRY:
Anther mature earlier than stigma of same flower.Eg:cotton,sunflower
3)SUPPRESION OF ONE SEX:
In some bisexual flower,one of the two sex organ(either stamen or carpel)is completely suppressed and becomes sterile.
4)PREPOTENCY:
In certain plants pollen grains of one flower germinate on the stigma of another flower more rapidly than the same one.
5)SELF STERILITY:
Pollen grains of a flower are incapable of completing growth on the stigma of same flower due to mutual inhibition.
6)HETEROSTYLY:
This is the condition of occurrence of two or more than two types of flowers which have different lenth of styles and stamens.
Eg:Oxalis(trimorphy),Primula(dimorphic)
7)HERKOGAMY:
In certainn flower there may be some physical barrier between anther annd stigma so that self pollination becomes impossible.
Eg:Calotropis
ADVANTAGES OF CROSS POLLINATION:
1)Useful characters can be introduced in plants.
2)Undesirable characters can be elimated.
3)It increase the adaptability of varieties towarsds the new environment.
4)The seeds produced are usually large and more vigorous.
5)A phenomenon of hybrid vigour can be observed in this method.
6)Seed production never falls below an average minimum.

DISADVANTAGES OF CROSS POLLINATION:
1)It depends on external organisms for pollination to occur.
2)It is less economical.The plant consume large amount of energy in production of large no of pollen grains.
3)Some of very good characters of variety are likely to be spoiled.
4)Due to cross pollination,some undesirable characters can remain in variety.
5)It fails in oxalis.
6)Pollen grains are lost.

Mutation with Ploidy

MUTATION:
Mutation is sudden change in the hereditary of an organism due to change in number of chromosome, structure of chromosome or change in molecular level of DNA.
Mutation was coined by Hugo De Vries, a Dutch Botanist. He worked on Evening Primrose and observed 834 mutation out of 54343 plants.
Mutation which occurs naturally is called spontaneous mutation where the mutation which occurs artificially by chemicals or physical agents are called as induced mutation. The agents that induce mutation like mustard gas, x-rays, alpha, Betta or gamma rays are called mutagens.The product of mutation is called mutant.

TYPES OF MUTATION:
1) MICRO MUTATION/GENE MUTATION/POINT MUTATION:
Gene mutation is defined as change in the structure of individual gene.It induces just one or two bases in DNA molecule.Thus its is also called as Point Mutation.Gene mutation occurs due to following change in DNA and RNA:

a) Frameshift Mutation:
The mutation which is caused by either addition or deletion of nitrogenous bases of DNA or m RNA is called as Frameshift Mutation.One deletion is neutralized by one addition or vice versa.
i)Addition Mutation:
The point mutation caused by the addition of one base pair of a gene is called addition mutation.
Eg:Addition of G on base sequence:
GAT GAT GAT
addition of G
GAT GGA TGA
ii)Deletion Mutation:
The point mutation caused by deletion of one base pair of gene is called deletion mutation.
Eg,Deletion of G on base sequence
GAT GAT GAT
? deletion of G
GAT ATG ATG

b) Substitution Mutation:
One base pair replaced by a different one is called substitution mutation.It is of two types:
i) Transition:
The mutation which occurs by the substitution of one purine by another purine or one pyrimidine by another is called Transition.
Purine(A,G)
Pyrimidine9C,T0
A--G
C--T
ii)Transversion:
The mutation which occurs by the substitution of one purine by another pyrimidine or vice versa is called Transversion.
Eg;
A -T
C-G

2) CHROMOSOMAL MUTATION/MACRO MUTATION/LINE MUTATION
The mutation which is caused by the change in structure or number of chromosome is called chromosomal mutation.It is of two types:
a)Chromosomal abbreviation:
The mutation which is caused by the change in the structure of chromosome is called chromosomal abbreviation.These are of following types:
i)Deficiency:
Loss of terminal segment from a chromosome is called Deficiency.Eg
ABCDEF-ABCD
Ii) Deletion:
Loss of intercalary segment of chromosome is called Deletion.
Eg.
ABCDEF-ABEF
iii)Duplication:
Sometime the part of chromosome gets repeated in the same chromosome called duplication.Eg
ABCDEFGH-ABCDEFEFGH
Iv)Inversion:
Segment of chromosome being inverted and reunited is called inversion.
Eg:
ABCDEF?ADCBEF
v)Translation:
Exange of segment between non homologous chromosome is called translation..
Eg.
ABCDEFGH/MNOPQRST?ABCDEFST/MNOPQRGH

b)Genomatic mutation or Ploid:
Mutation caused by the change in the number of chromosome is called Ploidy or Genomatic mutations.It is of following type:
A)ANEUPLOIDY:
The addition or loss of one or more chromosome from the complete set is called Aneuploidy.Thus the total number of chromosome is not an exact multiple of the haploid number(n).
Eg(2n+1) Trisomy or (2n-1)monosomy

TYPES OF ANEUPLOIDY:
1)Hypoploidy:
Loss of chromosome for complete set.It is of following types:
i)Monosomics:
Loss of one chromosome from complete set is called monnosomics.It is represented as 2n-1.
ii)Nullisomic:
Loss of single pair of chromosoms from a pair of complete set is called nullisomics.Its is represented by 2n-2.

2)Hyperploidy:
Addition of chromosome in complete set.It is of following type:
i)Trisomic:
Addition of one chromosome is called trisomic.It is represented as 2n+1.
ii)Tetrasomic:
Additon of a pair of chromosome is called tetresomic.It is represented as 2n+2.

B)EUPLOIDY:
It include addition or loss of complete one set or more than one set of chromosome in diploid organism.The total number of chromosome is exact multiple of halploid number.They are of following type:
a)Monoploidy:
It involves loss of one set of chromosome from a diploid set resulting offspring having only one set of chromosome.
Eg:Male wasp,bee
b)Polyploidy:
Addition of one or more sets of chromosome is called polyploidy.Organism with more than two sets of chromosomes is called polyploidy.
Types of Polyploidy:
i)Autopolyploidy:
Autopolyploidy are those polyploids which are derived from the multiplication of the same basic set of chromosome.Autopolyploidy is formed due to replication of chromosomes during interphase and separation of chromatids during anaphase but fails to cytoplasmic cleave during cytokinesis.Autoploids are more fertile,vigour and large sized.
If a diploid species has two sets of chromosomes (AA) an autoploid willl have four similaf genome(AAAA)
Eg:Plum,Strawberry,grapes
ii)Alloploidy:
The polyploidy formed due to doubling of chromosomes number in a F1 hybrid which is derived from two distinct species is called alloploidy.
SpeciesX * SpeciesY
AA BB

AB diploid F1 hybrid

AABB

Cause of polyploidy:
It occurs in nature due to failure of chromosome to separate at the time of anaphase either due to non disjunction or due to non formation of spindle.
Advantages of Polyploidy:
1)Polyploidy is often associated with advantageous features such as increased size,hardness and resistance.This is called hybrid vigour.
2)Polyploidy is one of the source of Variation and help in evolution of new Varieties.
3)Seedless variety of watermelon,tomatoes,grapes etx have been produced by triploids.
4)Desease resistant and high yielding species of crop plants such as hybrid wheat,hybrid paddy are produced by allopolyploidy.
5)Polyploid plants have more morphological genetical and physiological advancement over a normal diploid plant.
6)Polyploid plant often faces the ecological hazards more boldly.

Reason for Triticum aestivum to become Hexaploid:
A Hexaploid species of wheat was artificially synthesized in 1946.A species of wheat Triticum monococcum(2n=14) was bred with wild grass Aegilops speltoids(2n=14) to produce a different species of wheat called emmer wheat(Triticum durum 2n=28),a tetraploid condition. Emmer wheat is again crossed with another species of wild grass Aegilops squarrosa(2n=14) to produce the wheat Triticum aestivum (2n=42) a hexaploid(6n) condition.
Triticum monococcum X Aegilops speltoids
2n=14 2n=14
Triticum durum
4n= 28

Triticum durum X Aegilops squarrosa
4n=28 2n=14


Triticum aestivum
6n=42
Hexaploid condition

ARTIFICIAL INDUCTION OF POLYPLOIDY:
Conchicine is the mostly and widely used chemical for artificial induction of polyploidy.It inhibits the formation of spindle fibre during mitosis.It is greatly used in horticulture because plants treated with it are more resistant.

CAUSES OF MUTATION:
Mutation may occur naturally and is called spontaneous mutation.But if the mutation is induced artificially with the help of chemical agents then it is called induced mutation.The main cause of mutation is chemical agents like mustard gas,X-rays,UV radiations etc called mutagens.These chemical agents are responsible for causing mutation.

MUTATION FREQUENCY:
The rate at which mutation occurs is called mutation frequency.It is very low in most organism.Genes with rapid mutation rate is called mutable or unstable gene.

ROLE OF MUTATION IN EVOLUTION:
1)Mutation provides a bulk of hereditary variations on which natural selection operates.
2)Mutation helps the organism to adjust in the new environment condition.
3)Various new plants of desired character have been created by mutation.
4)Useful characters can be introduced in the organism.
5)High production of disease resisting varieties of crops.
6)Mutation are useful for understanding the basic principles of inheritance.

RESULTS OF MUTATION:
Mutation produces different types of effects like lethal,advantageous ,neutral visible or invisible.Mutation may produce sudden and large changes or may produce small and insignificant changes.the mutation that produce any significant visible changes are detected and the mutations that fail to produce any phenotypic variation are lost undetected .Certain mutation induce physiological changes.they may influence the inability or fertility of organism.
A mutation generally results in the loss of function of genes such as:
1)Mutation changes the sequence of nitrogenous bases in the gene that cause the change in codons and the alters the sequence of amino acids.Therefore,the mutated polypeptide chain may have modified or reduced or no functional activity.
2)Mutation may lead to the formation of a termination of an incomplete polypeptide chain.This lead to the loss of normal functioning of genes.

Mobiles:Fashion or need

Mobiles are the devices through which communication has become easier and faster.It is an electronic device used for mobile telecommunication over a cellular network of base stations known as cell site..In this modern world ,it is useless to tell what mobile is because every one is so familiar with it in day to day life.From morning to night, people use it.Mobiles have become a true friend to everyone.Life can not be imagined without a mobile phone today.This reflect how important mobile has become.More then this,mobile has become an integral part of our life and thus it has made us dependent upon it.

A mobile has got many advantages.Communication has become faster and much easier due to mobile.Precious time is saved by use of mobile.Nowadays,many software's are also included in mobile set itself.So,mobile has become quite versatile.Not only communication but different games are involved in mobile phone.Similarly,mobile phones can be used as a television also.Chinese has invented such mobile devices through which television can also be accessed easily.Mobile phones market is increasing day by day.It has been estimated that over 4.6 billions mobile will be sold by 2009.So, its popularity is increasing day by day.Not only mobiles have made life easier,it has also helped to improve economic condition of many countries.Mobile industries are being established day by day.Many people are keen in learning about mobile technology.Establishment of various mobile industry has given employment opportunity to many people.Similarly,the country's economic condition has been boost up.For example:China has been successful in increasing its economy to 9% due to development in technologies and mobile is one of the them.In world more than 2 billion people are using Chinese mobiles.This shows how mobile help to improve economic condition.

Despite of these aspects question now arises whether mobile phones are being used for communication purpose or for fashionable purpose?Young generations are buying expensive mobiles for showing purpose rather than communication.If question is asked to them ,then reply comes in this way:
"My friend brought an N-series latest mobile,So I must also buy one otherwise I will lose my prestige in front of him."This has become reason for global market of mobile rather than its advantage of communication.Mms has promoted porn pictures.So,mobiles phones are being misused.While manufacturing mobiles phone,the inventor must take all these thing in mind and manufacture mobiles phone or else the young generation will be useless.Similarly,chating with friends for more than hours and hours has dawdled the time of student.As student are future of nation,so development of countries lie in the hand of mobile phone manufacturer.Mobile manufacture company must not create such expensive mobiles.This must be controlled.

IMPROVEMENT IN TECHNOLOGY

21st century is called as "Era of Science and Technology".Is it right to tell this?Have you ever though this before why people call this era as" Era of Science And Technology?"But with no further dilemma in your mind:this is in fact age of Science and technology.There is no need to explain why?You can judge by yourself by looking around naked eyes.What do you see around?Don't tell nature and its beauty.Besides that what do you see?Its the creation of great Scientists.

You are able to access the whole world by staying in a room;you can know about the Universe by just changing the channel of your television;you are able to communicate with people staying at South pole ,you being in North pole;you can go from one place to another without any discomfort...and lots and lots of more which you are using is boon given to us by the great Scientists.Life has become more easier,more faster and more safer which our forefathers were not able to observe.This reflect the development in technology.The development in technology has reached such height that it is difficult to think further improvement in technology.But hats off to those scientists who are continuously working day and night for helping ordinary people by bringing improvement in technology.

With advantages comes drawbacks.Einstein creation E=MC2 has been wrongly used by some dictators in making nuclear weapons.The invention of atom bomb is taking life of all living organism and destroying earth piece by piece .If this continues in same ratio then we have to search another place to live.People are forgetting who they are and are behaving like animals who are even better than those humans who use their power in negative way.Killing each other for the sake of power is simply a cruel deed.People are fighting for short term pleasure and happiness.They are running behind wealth but they have forgotten the fact that when they rest in peace then they will take nothing with them.They will simply die taking nothing along with them.So,its useless to fight in name of wealth,fame cause these all are sort term things.

Despite all of this,the development of technology is so rapid that after few minutes new things are been discovered.The things which our ancestor could not use are been used by us and the things that we are not using will be used by our upcoming generation.This shows that improvement in technology is steady process which will take place till the end of Universe.There is no doubt that even after the end there will be a new beginning and beginning means further development of technology and finally its improvement.We human beings may leave this world but our creation such that technology will remain alive for ever and ever;and thus make us immortal.This shows how we have made our life safer and easier by discovering new technology and our willingness to invent more and improve them.

Opportunity and Time: important in bringing friends

There is a well known saying that time and tides wait for none.It is like arrow left from a bow i.e once,it is released it never returns.Similarly,opportunity is the chance to achieve new things.If opportunity is not grabbed within time then nothing is possible.Whether it is wealth or relationship time and opportunity plays a vital role in achieving both of them.So,in my opinion I disagree with the statement that "neither opportunity nor time can determine intimacy."

The flow of time can be compared with the flow of river.It can never be stopped.There is a life cycle going around and we are part of this cycle.Unless proper time comes, we can not do anything.Friends are one of the most important parts of human life.Man is social animal and to live in society he needs friends.To make friends opportunity and time has an essential role.Certain time comes when two people meet each other.After meeting with each other,it is up to them whether they become friend or not.Here,time plays a nice role.If that two people spend few days with each other then they can become friends but not true friends.To become close friends they have to spend many years.So,time plays a part to bring closeness among each other.When it comes in context of opportunity then there are certain moments when two people get a chance to speak with each other and then establish a relationship.

Similarly,time and opportunity helps a person to create a friendly environment.A person can make many friends but not true friends.Its only time that will decide who will stay for ever and ever.Like Adolf Hitler.a dictator of Germany and Musollini,an autocrat from Italy were considered as best friends.It was time and opportunity that made them close friends.The starting of World war II made them ever more close than before.Similarly,Albert Einstein ,the great scientist was a German but contributed to USA in the World War II.It was once again time and opportunity that made Einstein to move to USA and help the country.Similarly,capitalist and communist groups were also created on the basis of time.In addition to this,its opportunity and time that increases love,closeness among family members than other people.We love our family members more than we do to others because we stay more time with them.

However,some people might think that time and opportunity is just a thing.Friends can be made by looking at them;it is not essential to spend more time to make friends and opportunity is also not required.They are simply superfluous things.But the aftermath of such friendship is not long lasting,it is like love at first sight.Such friendship can not bring any love,affection,closeness or overall intimacy.Thus,time and opportunity has essence role in bringing happiness in life.

Finally,I would like to support the fact that time and opportunity together plays an important role in bringing intimacy.It is not possible to make true friends.Person must grab proper opportunity and wait for while to make good friendship and life lasting relationship.So,I disagree with the statement that" neither time nor opportunity can determine friendship."